Fundamentals and applications of time-varying media: A review

Abstract

Time-varying media, characterized by dynamic or spacetime-modulated constitutive parameters such as permittivity and permeability, have recently emerged as a transformative paradigm for advanced wave control, transcending the constraints imposed by temporal translation symmetry and energy conservation in static systems. By incorporating time as an active degree of freedom, such media unlock unique phenomena including broadband frequency conversion, temporal refraction, significant field enhancement, and magnet-free nonreciprocity. These capabilities are reshaping the landscape of photonic technologies, enabling groundbreaking applications such as broadband nonreciprocal amplifiers, non-resonant lasers, and highly efficient particle accelerators. This review systematically classifies time-varying media based on their modulation schemes and elucidates the underlying physical principles and distinctive wave–matter interactions. We comprehensively survey the latest advances in this rapidly evolving field, highlighting exotic wave behaviors and practical implementations across electromagnetic and photonic systems. Furthermore, we summarize experimental platforms that realize time-varying responses across different frequency regimes. Finally, we assess the current state of progress, identify key challenges, and offer a forward-looking perspective on future research directions in this dynamic and promising area.

The authors' abstract, as published at the source. Applied Physics Reviews, 2026 · DOI ↗