A scoping review of AI-mediated informal language learning: Mapping out the terrain and identifying future directions

Abstract

Abstract This scoping review directs attention to artificial intelligence–mediated informal language learning (AI-ILL), defined as autonomous, self-directed, out-of-class second and foreign language (L2) learning practices involving AI tools. Through analysis of 65 empirical studies published up to mid-April 2025, it maps the landscape of this emerging field and identifies the key antecedents and outcomes. Findings revealed a nascent field characterized by exponential growth following ChatGPT’s release, geographical concentration in East Asia, methodological dominance of cross-sectional designs, and limited theoretical foundations. Analysis also demonstrated that learners’ AI-mediated informal learning practices are influenced by cognitive, affective, and sociocontextual factors, while producing significant benefits across linguistic, affective, and cognitive dimensions, particularly enhanced speaking proficiency and reduced communication anxiety. This review situates AI-ILL as an evolving subfield within intelligent CALL and suggests important directions for future research to understand the potential of constantly emerging AI technologies in supporting autonomous L2 development beyond the classroom.

The authors' abstract, as published at the source. ReCALL, 2025 · DOI ↗