The Global Carbon Budget as a cointegrated system

Abstract

Abstract The Global Carbon Budget, maintained by the Global Carbon Project, summarizes Earth’s global carbon cycle through four annual time series beginning in 1959: atmospheric CO2 concentrations, anthropogenic CO2 emissions, and CO2 uptake by land and by ocean. We analyze these four time series as a multivariate (cointegrated) system. Statistical tests show that the four time series are cointegrated with rank three and identify anthropogenic CO2 emissions as the single stochastic trend driving the nonstationary dynamics of the system. The three cointegrated relations correspond to the physical relations that the sinks are linearly related to atmospheric concentrations and that the change in concentrations equals emissions minus the combined uptake by land and ocean. Furthermore, likelihood ratio tests show that a parametrically restricted error-correction model that embodies these physical relations cannot be rejected on the data. The model can be used for both in-sample and out-of-sample analysis. In an application of the latter, we demonstrate that projections based on this model, using Shared Socioeconomic Pathways scenarios, yield results consistent with established climate science.

The authors' abstract, as published at the source. Econometrics Journal, 2026 · DOI ↗