Tree Components in Integrated Crop–Livestock–Forest Systems: Silvicultural Management, Wood Production, Timber Quality, and Greenhouse Gas Mitigation

Abstract

Integrated Crop–Livestock–Forest (ICLF) systems have emerged as a key strategy for sustainable agricultural intensification by simultaneously enhancing productivity, ecosystem services, and climate resilience in tropical environments. This review synthesizes current knowledge on the role of the tree component in ICLF systems, with emphasis on wood production, timber quality, greenhouse gas (GHG) mitigation, and ecosystem functioning. We discuss the conceptual basis and typologies of ICLF systems, the influence of spatial and temporal arrangements, and the biotic and abiotic factors regulating tree growth and productivity. The review further examines management practices—including species selection, tree density, thinning, and pruning—and their implications for wood yield, timber quality, and overall system performance. Evidence demonstrates that appropriately managed tree components enhance nutrient cycling, soil quality, biodiversity, animal welfare, and farm profitability while increasing carbon sequestration in aboveground biomass and soils. Trees also contribute to offsetting methane (CH4) and nitrous oxide (N2O) emissions, reinforcing the climate mitigation potential of ICLF systems. Despite these benefits, adoption remains constrained by technical, economic, and regional challenges, highlighting the need for site-specific recommendations and improved silvicultural management. Overall, optimizing the tree component can maximize the multifunctionality of ICLF systems, supporting sustainable wood production, ecosystem restoration, the implementation of Brazil’s ABC+ Plan, and the achievement of the country’s Nationally Determined Contributions (NDCs) under the Paris Agreement.

The authors' abstract, as published at the source. Forests, 2026 · DOI ↗