Government support drives agroforestry adoption and tree cultivation in smallholder farming systems

Abstract

Agroforestry can enhance and diversify farm incomes and is a promising natural climate solution. This study evaluates the effectiveness of government-supported agroforestry programs in Madhya Pradesh, India, by integrating survey data from 870 farm households across 59 villages with geospatial information on factors affecting tree growing. Here we show that government support led to a 19% increase in farmer involvement in commercial tree cultivation. Moreover, participation significantly increased the number of commercial trees planted, with increases of 89% in total trees, 71% in trees per hectare, and 80% in the proportion of timber trees. Program participation, not program knowledge, was crucial: farmers who knew of but did not participate in government-supported programs did not expand their tree-growing activities. For those not exposed to government programs, factors such as climate (precipitation and temperature), ecoregional variation, jurisdictional differences, and household characteristics (land size) were important predictors of tree cultivation. Our findings highlight the efficacy of public investments in agroforestry and provide justification for their continued support. Participation in government-supported agroforestry programs increases commercial tree cultivation in Madhya Pradesh, whereas awareness alone has little effect, based on surveys of 870 farm households across 59 villages integrated with geospatial data.

The authors' abstract, as published at the source. Communications Earth & Environment, 2026 · DOI ↗