Patterns of Raw Milk Adulteration in Informal Markets in Malawi: A Multivariate Statistical Analysis

Abstract

Milk adulteration is a common fraud practiced by milk producers. In Malawi, information about its extent is limited. A cross-sectional study was conducted across three major milk- producing districts in Malawi to assess the prevalence and levels of predominant adulterants. Adulterant testing was performed using semi-quantitative milk test strips, except for water, which involved a combination of flow/drop and organoleptic observations followed by lactometry. Data were analyzed in R. The most prevalent adulterant was water (91%, n = 350), followed by neutralizer (91%, n = 350) and urea (4%, n = 14). Samples from vendors and Thyolo District had the highest prevalence of neutralizers (90%, n = 64). In comparison, water adulteration was highest (100%, n = 78) in Lilongwe. Compared with farmers, vendors had higher odds of water (aOR = 8.12) and neutralizer (aOR = 2.19) adulteration. With reference to Thyolo, the odds of water adulteration (aOR = 4.06) were higher in Lilongwe, while for neutralizer, Lilongwe (aOR = 0.20) and Karonga (aOR = 0.11). Co-occurrence of urea, neutralizers, and water was associated with vendors and Thyolo. Samples from vendors and farmers in Lilongwe and Karonga had similar neutralizer levels (p > 0.05). These findings underscore the need to apply interventions to address milk adulteration in Malawi with the hope of scaling them to other countries.

The authors' abstract, as published at the source. Dairy, 2026 · DOI ↗