ICT use and student outcomes: Evidence from TIMSS 2019-2023

Abstract

Background The integration of Information and Communication Technologies (ICT) in primary education has intensified over the last decade, yet empirical evidence on their association with academic performance and students' enjoyment of learning remains inconclusive. Aims This study investigates the association between the frequency of classroom ICT use and academic performance (Science and Mathematics) among Spanish fourth-grade students, examining whether this relationship differs between 2019 and 2023. A secondary aim explores the association with learning enjoyment. Sample We use Spanish fourth-grade student data from TIMSS 2019 and TIMSS 2023; the final estimation samples comprise 9252 (Mathematics) and 9216 (Science) students in 2019, and 4616 (Mathematics) and 6487 (Science) students in 2023. Methods We estimate linear regression models using plausible values, sampling weights, and Jackknife Repeated Replication (JRR). Learning enjoyment is modeled through ordinal logistic regression, and quantile regressions examine differential associations across the achievement distribution. Results In 2019, frequent ICT use was associated with lower academic performance, with numerically larger negative coefficients toward the lower end of the achievement distribution (differences across quantiles were not formally tested), and linked to higher Science enjoyment. Conversely, 2023 results show no significant association between ICT use and either outcome. Conclusions The results suggest that more frequent ICT use was not associated with improved academic performance, and was negatively associated with it in 2019. These patterns are consistent with, though do not directly test, the idea that device access alone may be insufficient without adequate pedagogical integration. These findings should be interpreted with caution, given the inherent methodological limitations of the study.

The authors' abstract, as published at the source. Learning and Instruction, 2026 · DOI ↗